A chemical signature hidden in a 3.8‑billion‑year‑old lunar rock is offering new insights into the availability of oxygen within the young Moon.

Published today in the journal Nature Communications, the paper “Trivalent Titanium in High-Titanium Lunar Ilmenite” confirms titanium in a reduced, trivalent state in a black, metal-rich lunar mineral called ilmenite. It’s a state only possible in low-oxygen environments, conditions researchers refer to as “reducing.”

“Models have suggested that these reducing conditions may have varied at different locations and times across the surface of the Moon,” says lead author Advik Vira, a graduate student in the School of Physics who recently earned his doctoral degree. “We hope our microscopy technique can be a valuable step in mapping and understanding the Moon’s 4.5-billion-year history.”

The team anticipates that their technique could be used on many of the lunar samples collected more than 50 years ago by the Apollo missions in addition to the Apollo Next Generation Samples — a group of lunar samples that have been stored under pristine conditions — and new samples from the planned Artemis missions, with Artemis II slated for launch this spring. The technique might also be applicable to samples collected from the far side of the Moon and returned in 2024 by the Chang’e-6 mission.

“The Moon holds clues not only to its own past, but also to the earliest eras of Earth’s evolution — history that has long since been erased from our planet,” Vira says. “This study is a step toward understanding the history of both and a reminder that there is still so much left to learn from the lunar rocks we’ve brought back to Earth.”

The School of Physics research team included corresponding authors Vira and Professor Phillip First; in addition to graduate student Roshan Trivedi; undergraduate students Gabriella Dotson, Keyes Eames, Dean Kim, and Emma Livernois; and Professor Zhigang Jiang, along with Institute for Matter and Systems Materials Characterization Facility Senior Research Scientist Mengkun Tian; School of Chemistry and Biochemistry Senior Research Scientist Brant Jones and Thom Orlando, Regents' Professor in the School of Chemistry and Biochemistry with a joint appointment in the School of Physics. 

The Georgia Tech team was joined by Addis Energy Senior Geochemist Katherine Burgess; Macalester College Assistant Professor of Geology Emily First; along with Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory Research Scientist Harrison Lisabeth, Senior Scientist Nobumichi Tamura, and Postdoctoral Fellow Tyler Farr, who recently earned a Ph.D. from Georgia Tech’s George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering.

CLEVER research

The investigation began with a dark gray rock called a lunar basalt. Formed when ancient magma erupted on the Moon’s surface, minerals crystallized as it cooled — preserving key information in their structures. Billions of years later, the rock was brought to Earth by the 1972 Apollo 17 mission, where a small piece is now stored at Georgia Tech’s Center for Lunar Environment and Volatile Exploration Research (CLEVER), a NASA Solar System Exploration Research Virtual Institute (SSERVI) center led by Orlando.

As a NASA virtual institute, CLEVER supports researchers exploring lunar conditions and developing tools for the upcoming crewed Artemis missions, and provided the lunar samples for this research. The SSERVI also plays a critical role in training the next generation of planetary researchers: both Vira and Farr earned their Ph.D.s while on the CLEVER team.

“At CLEVER, we are very interested in understanding the impacts of space weathering,” Vira says. “We implemented modern sample preparation and advanced microscopy techniques to image samples at the atomic level, and were curious to apply it more broadly to the collection of Apollo rocks in the Orlando Lab. This sample caught our attention.”

“When we imaged an ilmenite crystal from the lunar basalt, what struck us first was how uniform and perfect the crystal structure was,” he recalls. “We found no defects from space weathering and instead saw an undamaged, pristine crystal — undisturbed for 3.8 billion years.”

To investigate further, the team analyzed small chips of the rock with Burgess, a member of the RISE2 SSERVI team and then a geologist at the U.S. Naval Research Laboratory. Using state-of-the-art electron microscopy and spectroscopy techniques, Vira determined the oxidation state of the elements in the ilmenite present. 

In spectroscopy measurements, each element leaves a distinct ‘signature,’ Vira explains. “When we brought our results back to Georgia Tech’s Materials Characterization Facility, Mengkun (Tian) noticed something unusual: the signature showed titanium might be present in the trivalent state.”

The presence of trivalent titanium had long been suspected in this lunar mineral. The team was intrigued. 

A new window into old rocks

With funding from Georgia Tech’s Center for Space Technology and Research (CSTAR), Vira returned to the U.S. Naval Research Laboratory to analyze additional samples. The results confirmed that more titanium was present than the mineral’s formula (FeTiO₃) predicts — indicating a portion of the titanium present was trivalent.

“That led me to place our measurements in terms of the broader geological context,” Vira shares. Working with First, Vira explored how ilmenite with trivalent titanium could help reconstruct the nature of ancient magmas from the Moon, especially the chemical availability of oxygen.

“Because its location on the Moon was noted during the Apollo mission, we know exactly where this rock is from, and we can determine how old the rock is,” he explains. “When coupled with our trivalent titanium measurements, we can use that information to estimate the reducing conditions for this specific region at the specific time our rock formed.”

If the upcoming Artemis missions return samples suitable for the team’s technique, these rocks could provide a new window into ancient lunar geology. The research also highlights that many lunar samples already on Earth could be reexamined to look for trivalent titanium.

“There is still so much to learn from the lunar samples we have already brought to Earth,” Vira says. “It’s a testament to the long-term value of each sample return mission. As technology continues to advance, this type of work will continue to give us critical insights into our planet and our place in the universe for years to come.”

 

DOI: 10.1038/s41467-026-69770-w

Funding: This work was directly supported by the NASA SSERVI under CLEVER. Researchers were also supported by the NASA RISE2 SSERVI and the Heising-Simons Foundation. Funding for collaborations between the U.S. Naval Research Laboratory and Georgia Tech for the investigation of lunar minerals was provided by the Georgia Tech Center for Space Technology and Research. Sample preparation was performed at the Georgia Tech Institute for Matter and Systems, which is supported by the National Science Foundation. This work utilized the resources of the Advanced Light Source, a user facility supported by the U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Science, Office of Basic Energy Sciences, and was supported in part by previous breakthroughs obtained through the Laboratory Direct.

Since 2020, Georgia Tech has partnered with Sandia National Laboratories, a federally funded research and development center focused on national security. In February, the two institutions renewed their collaboration with a new Memorandum of Understanding (MOU), reaffirming a relationship that has already strengthened research capabilities on both sides.

The partnership has driven progress in areas ranging from hypersonics to bioscience, while also deepening institutional ties beyond research. Joint faculty appointments — such as Anirban Mazumdar, who holds roles at both Sandia and the George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering — demonstrate how closely the organizations work together. The collaboration has also expanded student talent pipelines, providing more avenues for Georgia Tech students to pursue careers at the national lab.

“At its core, this partnership is about people,” said Tim Lieuwen, executive vice president for Research at Georgia Tech. “Sandia and Georgia Tech share a commitment to discovery and developing the talent, creativity, and collaboration our nation needs.”

The renewed MOU, he said, “strengthens connections between our researchers, opens new doors for our students, and builds meaningful career pathways into national service. When our communities work together to address national priorities, we not only accelerate technological advances — we expand opportunities for the people who will shape the future of our nation’s security.”

Under the new MOU, Sandia and Georgia Tech will focus on integrated research across key national security‑aligned areas, including secure artificial intelligence and computing, quantum technologies, critical minerals, advanced manufacturing, energy and grid resilience, and hypersonics. The partnership emphasizes connecting manufacturing, computation, and systems approaches directly to national security applications.

“Together, we have been solving new and unprecedented challenges in science and engineering, and now we have a great opportunity to develop this partnership,” said Dan Sinars, Sandia’s deputy chief research officer. “Our research benefits both national security and national prosperity, and keeps the country at the forefront of the world.”

With this strengthened connection, the partners aim to grow their shared research footprint through increased funding, publications, and faculty-led startups. Over the long term, Georgia Tech intends to become one of Sandia’s top hiring pipelines, ensuring that talent developed through joint research continues into national security careers.

History of the Partnership

The Institute’s collaboration with Sandia began in the mid‑2010s, when the labs selected Georgia Tech as one of its partner institutions. The first MOU, signed in 2015, formalized the relationship and outlined initial technical focus areas. 

In 2018, George White, executive director of strategic partnerships, and Olof Westerstahl, senior director strategic initiatives in the Office of Corporate Engagement, helped expand the partnership. They launched “Sandia Day,” an event designed to introduce Georgia Tech faculty to Sandia researchers and spark new collaborations. By 2020, the organizations signed a second MOU that expanded the partnership’s technical focus areas to include energy and grid security, materials and nanotechnology, advanced electronics, advanced manufacturing, advanced computing, cyber and information security, bioscience, hypersonics, quantum information science, and engineering sciences.

The results have been substantial. Since 2018, Sandia has sponsored $35 million in research collaborations with Georgia Tech. Researchers from both institutions have co-authored 450 publications since 2016. Research activity continues to accelerate, with $1.6 million in new contracts in the past year alone. As of August 2025, Sandia employs 325 Georgia Tech alumni — a testament to the impact of the growing talent pipeline.

“We view our work with Sandia as the model for engagement with other national labs,” said White. “With the new MOU, we will continue to grow the Sandia partnership. I would like to see our footprint double in scope in the next five years.”

 

Sheepdogs, bred to control large groups of sheep in open fields, have demonstrated their skills in competitions dating back to the 1870s.

In these contests, a handler directs a trained dog with whistle signals to guide a small group of sheep across a field and sometimes split the flock cleanly into two groups. But sheep do not always cooperate.

Researchers at the Georgia Institute of Technology studied how handler–dog teams manage these unpredictable flocks in sheepdog trials and found principles that extend beyond livestock herding.

In a study published in Science Advances as the cover feature, the researchers applied those insights to computer simulations showing how similar strategies could improve the control of robot swarms, autonomous vehicles, AI agents, and other networked systems where many machines must coordinate their actions despite uncertain conditions.

Group Movement Dynamics

“Birds, bugs, fish, sheep, and many other organisms move in groups because it benefits individuals, including protection from predators,” said Saad Bhamla, an associate professor in Georgia Tech’s School of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering. “The puzzle is that the ‘group’ is not a single organism. It is built from many individuals, each making local, imperfect decisions.”

When a predator threatens a herd of sheep, individuals near the edge often move toward the center to reduce their own risk, Bhamla explained. “This is ‘selfish herd’ behavior,” he said. “Shepherds exploit that instinct using trained dogs.”

From examining hours of contest footage, the researchers found that controlling small groups of sheep can be harder than managing large ones. A larger group, with more sheep protected in the center, may behave more coherently than a small group as the animals constantly shift between two instincts: “follow the group” and “flee the dog.”

“That switching behavior makes the group unpredictable,” said Tuhin Chakrabortty, a former postdoctoral researcher in the Bhamla Lab who co-led the study.

Looking closely at how dogs and their handlers guide small groups, the researchers found that unpredictability in the flock’s behavior does not always make control harder. “Under the right conditions, that ‘noisy’ behavior might actually be a benefit,” Bhamla said.

Successful Sheep Herding

Sheepdog handlers categorize sheep by how strongly they respond to a dog’s threatening pressure. Some very responsive sheep might panic under too much pressure, while others might ignore mild pressure and require stronger positioning by the dog.

The researchers observed that successful control often followed a two-step pattern. First, the dog subtly influenced the sheep’s orientation while the animals were mostly standing still. Once the flock was aligned in the desired direction, the dog increased pressure to trigger movement. The timing of those actions was critical, because alignment within a small group could disappear quickly as individuals switched between instincts.

“In our simulations, increasing pressure makes the flock reach the desired orientation faster, but how long the flock stays aligned is set mainly by noise,” Chakrabortty said. “In essence, dogs can steer the direction, but they can’t hold that decision indefinitely, so timing matters.”

Carbon dioxide continues to push global temperatures toward dangerous thresholds that affect everything from public health to economies. To mitigate these effects, researchers are looking into carbon removal methods such as direct air capture machines that can chemically bind with carbon or simple ecological strategies like adding trees to unwooded areas. These approaches could potentially supplement the decarbonization of transport, industry, and the energy system.

But as carbon removal grows, so does a core problem: The carbon removal industry is largely unregulated, particularly for more novel technologies without long-standing norms around reporting and verification. In today’s “voluntary carbon market,” a private company can claim it removed a certain amount of carbon, list that amount for sale, and allow another company to buy it to offset its emissions — with little independent oversight or transparency.

A new Nature NPJ Climate Action article argues that this system isn’t enough to meet global climate goals, and could even end up causing harm. In the paper, Chris Reinhard, Georgia Power Chair and associate professor in Georgia Tech’s School of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences, and Noah Planavsky of the Yale Center for Natural Carbon Capture call for a fundamental shift: Carbon removal should be quantifiable, economically viable, and pursued in ways that create benefits for local communities — and greater transparency in carbon removal practice is necessary.

“We argue that it’s important to understand and quantify carbon removal practices that can benefit local communities, like better crop yields, and that this understanding is really only possible if these practices are pursued transparently,” Reinhard said. “The data used to quantify carbon removal and how much it costs need to be transparent — the surest route toward learning what works and building public trust in carbon removal as a solution.”

Transparency Trouble

Reinhard and Planavsky bring a unique technical and policy perspective to the issue. As geochemists, they study how Earth’s chemical composition and geological processes control the carbon cycle. Reinhard also co-founded a carbon removal startup he has since divested from. That insider experience and academic background helped them see the disconnect between what’s technologically possible and what market logic culturally or commercially incentivizes.

Today’s carbon removal startups often guard their methods and data as proprietary intellectual property. Without regulatory requirements or pressure from corporate carbon buyers, these startups have little reason to disclose carbon accounting practices, cost structures, or actual long-term impacts. The researchers argue that policy guidance and advocacy are needed to shift the industry toward meaningful openness.

“Our expertise is most firmly grounded in the technical dimensions of these carbon removal processes,” Reinhard said, “but we saw an opportunity here to push for better policy and start this dialogue about what transparency really means, in part to foster more public debate about what carbon removal ought to be doing for society.”

Community Beyond Carbon

The authors also stress that carbon removal should deliver benefits beyond atmospheric cleanup that communities can see and advocate for. For example, liming, or adding limestone to soil, can remove carbon while also improving crop yields and reducing erosion. Coastal ecosystem restoration can sequester carbon while strengthening shorelines and supporting fisheries. Georgia Tech’s own direct air capture work builds community engagement into the process to ensure that carbon removal is equitable. 

Reinhard and Planavsky say the next best step for the carbon removal industry is to identify which removal pathways offer the clearest benefits, what they cost, and where transparency gaps are most damaging. This foundation will help create policies that make carbon removal reliable, verifiable, and community-centered. 

Without oversight, they argue, carbon removal risks remaining a niche, market-defined practice — when the climate challenge demands a trusted, scalable, and democratically governed solution.

CITATION: Reinhard, C.T., Planavsky, N.J. The importance of radical transparency for responsible carbon dioxide removal. npj Clim. Action 5, 7 (2026). https://doi.org/10.1038/s44168-025-00324-4

Georgia Tech Energy Day returns this year on March 19 with an expanded focus and a new collaborative momentum. Cohosted by the Georgia Tech Institute for Matter and Systems (IMS) and the Strategic Energy Institute, (SEI) with plenary session support from the Energy Policy and Innovation Center, Energy Day 2026 convenes leaders from academia, industry, government, and students to address the challenges associated with meeting the rapidly growing electricity demand driven by artificial intelligence (AI) and high-performance computing. 

Set in the heart of Tech Square on the Georgia Tech campus, this year’s event explores how energy systems, materials, technologies, supply chains, and policy must evolve in response to AI’s accelerating impact. As digital infrastructure expands and computation intensifies, the need for reliable, resilient, and sustainable power has never been more urgent. 

“Energy Day reflects Georgia Tech’s strength in connecting world-class research in materials and components with the infrastructure and partnerships needed to translate discovery into scalable energy technologies that serve industry, society, and the future economy,” said Eric Vogel, executive director of the IMS and the Hightower Professor in Materials Science and Engineering. 

Energy Day 2026 also marks an important milestone with the introduction of its first group of corporate sponsors: GE Vernova, Southern Company, Georgia Power, Southwire Spark, ExxonMobil, Gems Setra, and Tektronix. Their support reflects a shared commitment to advancing energy solutions. 

“Tektronix is excited to be part of Energy Day because advancing the future of energy starts with precise measurement and trusted insights,” said Christopher Bohn, president of Tektronix. “From power electronics and high voltage systems to grid scale renewables and AI driven control technologies, the breakthroughs discussed here directly align with the innovations we support through our products and solutions. Collaborating with Georgia Tech allows us to engage early with emerging research and the next generation of engineers—critical collaborators in building a cleaner, smarter, and more resilient energy ecosystem.”

The keynote address will be delivered by Vanessa Z. Chan, a nationally recognized leader at the intersection of innovation, commercialization, and emerging technologies. Chan will provide insights on accelerating technological discovery, emphasizing how AI is transforming energy and materials design. She will discuss how commercialization strategies must rapidly evolve across multidisciplinary energy domains from grid modernization to advanced batteries and clean manufacturing.

Building on the themes introduced in the keynote, the program transitions into a fireside chat with Georgia Tech EVPR Tim Lieuwen featuring Amit Kulkarni and Jim Walsh. Kulkarni is vice president of Product Management and Strategy for the Gas Power business within GE Vernova, where he oversees the world’s largest portfolio of power generation equipment. Walsh, vice president of GE Vernova’s Consulting Services, leads teams providing innovative solutions across the full spectrum of power generation, delivery, and utilization.

Next comes a policy-focused panel that will explore the surge in power demand driven by AI, how the United States is addressing today’s most urgent energy challenges, and the long-term implications of today’s decisions for a sustainable energy future. Bringing together leading voices in U.S. environmental and energy policy, the panel features Joe Aldy of Harvard University and former special assistant to the president for Energy and Environment; Al McGartland of New York University’s Institute for Policy Integrity and former Environmental Protection Agency lead economist and director of the National Center for Environmental Economics; and Kevin Rennert, fellow and director of the Comprehensive Climate Strategies Program at Resources for the Future and former staff member on the U.S. Senate Committee on Energy and Natural Resources.

The second panel focuses on critical materials — the foundation of advanced energy systems and digital technologies. As AI, data centers, and advanced energy technologies drive demand for critical materials, securing them now requires integration and coordination across the entire value chain. Panelists include Rachel Galloway, British consul general in Atlanta; Vijay Murugesan, head of Materials Intelligence and Digital Innovation at Amazon, Charles Sims, Tennessee Valley Authority Distinguished Professor of Energy and Environmental Policy at the University of Tennessee; and Nortey Yeboah, principal engineer at Southern Company. Together, they will offer perspectives on the policy and economic frameworks shaping the energy supply chain, from developing raw resources to manufacturing the technologies essential to future energy systems.

In the afternoon, participants can dive deeper into specialized topics through three focused technical tracks. 

• “Meeting the Demand for Power” will examine how emerging technologies, advanced nuclear systems, and renewable integration can work together to deliver reliable, resilient electricity.
• “Data Center Infrastructure and Resources” will explore innovations in thermal management technologies, energy-efficient computing, and the broader resource impacts of expanding digital infrastructure.
• “Grid Technologies and Markets” will highlight strategies for strengthening grid capacity, incorporating demand-side management, and optimizing carbon performance as energy systems evolve.

“Meeting the rapidly rising electricity demand driven by AI requires bold ideas, coordinated action, and research that moves at the speed of innovation,” said Yuanzhi Tang, executive director of the SEI. “Energy Day 2026 brings together the people and expertise needed to shape resilient, sustainable energy systems for the future. At Georgia Tech, we see this event as a catalyst for new partnerships, new solutions, and a shared commitment to strengthening the nation’s energy foundation.”

Energy Day 2026 is designed for researchers advancing emerging energy technologies, policymakers navigating shifting regulatory and geopolitical landscapes, industry professionals seeking insight into emerging tools and supply chains, and students preparing to enter one of the most consequential sectors of the decade. It also welcomes anyone interested in AI, sustainability, electrification, and critical materials. 

Join us to explore the future of energy. To learn more and register, visit: Energy Day 2026.